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Systemic hypertension is an important condition in childhood, with estimated population prevalence of 1-2% in the developed countries.
The causes for increase in blood pressure are attributed to obesity, change in dietary habits, decreased physical activity and increasing stress. Similar data is lacking from India; small surveys in school children suggest a prevalence ranging from 2-5%
Normative data on blood pressure values, based on age and height percentiles, derived from a large multiethnic cohort of children in USA.
The Expert Group endorses the guidelines on definition of hypertension proposed in the Fourth US Task Force Report on Hypertension, which are in broad conformity with the Seventh Joint National Commission Report for adults
Pre-hypertension is defined as systolic or diastolic blood pressure between the 90th and 95th percentile.
Adolescents having blood pressure >120/80 mm Hg, but below the 95th percentile are also included in this category.
White coat hypertension
Some children may show blood pressure higher than the 95th percentile in clinic or hospital setting, while it is below 90th percentile in familiar environments. These patients do not need pharmacological treatment, but require blood pressure monitoring over the next 12 months, since a proportion is at risk of sustained essential hypertension.
Screening for hypertension
The Group recommends annual measurement of blood pressure in all children more than 3-year-old, who are seen in clinics or hospital settings. Blood pressure should also be measured in at-risk younger children with:
Transient hypertension
Hypertension may be transient in certain conditions, e.g., acute glomerulonephritis, acute intermittent porphyria, Guillain Barre syndrome, raised intracranial pressure, corticosteroid administration, anxiety and hyperthyroidism.
Therapy for hypertension may be required in some cases. Persistence of elevated blood pressures requires detailed evaluation.
Causes of Persistent Hypertension
Renal parenchymal disease :
Chronic glomerulonephritis,
Reflux nephropathy, obstructive uropathy,
Polycystic kidney disease, renal dysplasia
Renovascular hypertension :
Idiopathic aortoarteritis (Takayasu disease),
Renal artery stenosis,
Renal arteryThrombosis
Cardiovascular disease :
Coarctation of aorta
Primary (essential) hypertension
Endocrine :
Pheochromocytoma,
Cushing syndrome,
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia,
Primary hyperaldosteronism,
Liddle’s syndrome,
Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess,
Glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism,
Neuroblastoma
Renal tumors :
Wilms’ tumor,
Nephroblastoma
Clinical Features Indicating Underlying Diagnosis
Underlying cause | Feature |
---|---|
Renal parenchymal | Facial puffiness, edema, abdominal pain, dysuria, hematuria, frequency, polyuria; |
urological | history of urinary tract infections; abdominal mass |
Renovascular | Asymmetric pulses, abdominal/neck bruit, weak femoral artery pulses, café au lait spots |
coarctation of aorta | neurofibromatosis |
Connective tissue disease | Arthritis, arthralgias, unexplained fever, polymorphic rash |
Endocrine | Muscle weakness, cramps; episodic fever, pallor, sweating, flushing, tachycardia; polyuria, polydipsia, failure to thrive; abdominal mass; ambiguous genitalia / virilization |
Basic Diagnostic Work Up :
1) Evaluation for cause
Hemogram
Blood urea, creatinine, electrolytes
Fasting lipids, glucose, uric acid
Urinalysis, culture
24-hr urinary protein or spot protein to creatinine ratio
Chest X-ray
Renal ultrasonography
2) Screen for target organ damage
Retinal fundus examination
Urine: microalbumin, spot protein to creatinine ratio
Chest X-ray, ECG, echocardiography
Additional Diagnostic Tests for Sustained Hypertension
Condition | Diagnostic investigations |
Glomerulonephritis | Complement (C3), ANA, ANCA, anti-dsDNA, renal biopsy |
Reflux nephropathy | Micturating cystourethrogram, DMSA scintigraphy |
Renovascular hypertension | Doppler flow studies, captopril renography Angiography (MR, spiral CT, digital subtraction or conventional) Renal vein renin activity |
Coarctation of aorta | Echocardiography, angiography |
Endocrine causes | Thyroxine, thyroid stimulating hormone Plasma renin activity, aldosterone Plasma and urinary cortisol Plasma and urine catecholamines; MIBG scan, CT/MR imaging |
Management
It is useful to distinguish essential from secondary hypertension. While the initial management for patients with essential hypertension comprises of life style modifications, most patients with sustained secondary hypertension require treatment with antihypertensive agents
Patients are primarily managed by lifestyle modifications and revaluated 6 months later. The parents of these children are informed and advised regarding careful follow up. Medications are not required unless the patient has comorbid conditions or evidence of target organ damage.
Essential hypertension
Patients with essential hypertension are initially managed with lifestyle modifications.
Pharmacological therapy is initiated if there is
Lifestyle modifications
Lifestyle changes are recommended for all children with hypertension; interventions based on daily routines are likely to be more successful.
Weight reduction
Achievement of ideal body weight is important, since reduction of weight reduces sensitivity of blood pressure to salt and attenuates cardiovascular risk factors, e.g., dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Reduction of BMI by 10% is reported to lead to 8-12 mm Hg fall in systemic blood pressure. Weight reduction should be achieved by regular physical activity and diet modification. Prevention of excess weight gain limits future increases in blood pressure.
Increased physical activity
Children are encouraged to be active not only for weight control but for their well being. While they often find defined physical exercises (aerobics, tread mills) boring, they are likely to continue activities incorporated into their routines, e.g., walking or cycling to school, playing with friends outdoors and swimming.
The Group supports the recommendations of :
Sports avoided :
Participation in competitive sports is avoided in patients with stage 2 hypertension or target organ damage, until blood pressure is controlled satisfactorily.
Strength training (isometric) exercises (e.g., weight lifting, gymnastics, karate and judo) should be avoided.
Dietary changes
The effect of diet on blood pressure in children is extrapolated chiefly from studies on adults.
Salt intake :
Despite suggestions that foods rich in calcium, magnesium, folic acid and fiber are useful in reducing blood pressure, there is limited evidence in this regard.
An increased intake of fresh vegetables and fruits, whole grains and non-fat dairy is recommended. These foods are low in sodium and saturated fat and rich in minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium) and fiber.
THALI :
The Group endorses the dietary recommendations of the IAP Consensus Committee on Obesity.
The dailyfood composition is considered a 'thali', where half
(50%) is vegetables, salads and fruits,
(25%) is cereals (rice and/or chapattis), and the
remainder is protein based (legumes, milk, egg,animal protein).
The intake of fried foods, snacks and sweet dishes should be limited
Secondary hypertension
Patients with sustained secondary hypertension require therapy with antihypertensive agents. Physicians should be aware of the risk of hypertensive emergencies in children with stage 2 hypertension. The need to adhere to healthy eating habits and lifestyle is emphasized.
Drug therapy
Drug therapy is indicated in patients with
Principles of treatment
Hypertensive emergencies
Patients with stage 2 hypertension may present with acute, life threatening target organ damage involving central nervous system (encephalopathy, seizures), heart (pulmonary edema) or kidneys (acute renal failure).
These patients need hospitalization for monitoring and supportive care. Blood pressure levels are usually 5-15 mm above the 99th percentile, and should be reduced to safe levels.
Rapid reduction of blood pressure might, however, compromise blood flow and result in ischemic complications in the brain, retina, spinal cord and kidneys. Blood pressure reduction, therefore, must be regulated in order to prevent end organ damage to these organs
The difference between the observed and desired (95th percentile) blood pressure is estimated; 25-30% of the desired reduction should occur in the first 3-4 hr, another 25-30% in the next 24 hr, and then to the desired level over next 2 days. Agents of choice include short acting, intravenous (IV) preparations that are titrated to response (sodium nitroprusside, nitroglycerine, labetalol and nicardipine)
Rushabh Mall, 1st Floor, Plot No. 325, Wadekar Compound,G.B. Road, Next to Silver Lounge Hotel, Chitalsar Manpada, Thane 400607.